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FULL BACKGROUND
BLOOD — (1.) As food, prohibited in Gen. 9:4, where the use of animal food is first allowed. Comp. Deut. 12:23; Lev. 3:17; 7:26; 17:10–14. The injunction to abstain from blood is renewed in the decree of the council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:29). It has been held by some, and we think correctly, that this law of prohibition was only ceremonial and temporary; while others regard it as still binding on all. Blood was eaten by the Israelites after the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. 14:32–34).
(2.) The blood of sacrifices was caught by the priest in a basin, and then sprinkled seven times on the altar; that of the passover on the doorposts and lintels of the houses (Ex. 12; Lev. 4:5–7; 16:14–19). At the giving of the law (Ex. 24:8) the blood of the sacrifices was sprinkled on the people as well as on the altar, and thus the people were consecrated to God, or entered into covenant with him, hence the blood of the covenant (Matt. 26:28; Heb. 9:19, 20; 10:29; 13:20).
(3.) Human blood. The murderer was to be punished (Gen. 9:5). The blood of the murdered “crieth for vengeance” (Gen. 4:10). The “avenger of blood” was the nearest relative of the murdered, and he was required to avenge his death (Num. 35:24, 27). No satisfaction could be made for the guilt of murder (Num. 35:31).
(4.) Blood used metaphorically to denote race (Acts 17:26), and as a symbol of slaughter (Isa. 34:3). To “wash the feet in blood” means to gain a great victory (Ps. 58:10). Wine, from its red colour, is called “the blood of the grape” (Gen. 49:11). Blood and water issued from our Saviour’s side when it was pierced by the Roman soldier (John 19:34). This has led pathologists to the conclusion that the proper cause of Christ’s death was rupture of the heart. (Comp. Ps. 69:20.) 1
BLOOD. The point chiefly to be determined is whether ‘blood’ in biblical usage points basically to life or to death. There are those who hold that in the sacrificial system of the OT ‘blood’ represents life liberated from the limitations of the body and set free for other purposes. The ceremonial manipulation of blood on this view represents the solemn presentation to God of life, life surrendered, dedicated, transformed. The death occupies a subordinate place or even no place at all. On this view ‘the blood of Christ’ would mean little more than ‘the life of Christ’. The evidence, however, does not seem to support it.
In the first place there is the statistical evidence. Of the 362 passages in which the Hebrew word dam occurs in the OT, 203 refer to death with violence. Only six passages connect life and blood (17 refer to the eating of meat with blood). From this it is clear enough that death is the association most likely to be conjured up by the use of the term.
Then there is the lack of evidence adduced in support of the life theory. Exponents of this view regard it as self-evident from passages such as Lv. 17:11, ‘the life of the flesh is in the blood’. But the scriptural passages can just as well be interpreted of life yielded up in death, as of life set free.
It is undeniable that in some places atonement is said to have been secured by death, e.g. Nu. 35:33, ‘for blood pollutes the land, and no expiation can be made for the land (lit. for the land it will not be atoned) for the blood that is shed in it, except by the blood of him who shed it’. See also Ex. 29:33; Lv. 10:17.
The OT, then, affords no grounds for the far-reaching statements that are sometimes made. *Atonement is secured by the death of a victim rather than by its life. This carries over into the NT. There, as in the OT, blood is more often used in the sense of death by violence than in any other sense. When we come to the blood of Christ there are some passages which indicate in the plainest possible fashion that death is meant. Such are the references to being ‘justified by his blood’ (Rom. 5:9; parallel to ‘reconciled . . . by the death of his Son’ in v. 10), ‘the blood of his cross’ (Col. 1:20), the reference to coming ‘by water and blood’ (1 Jn. 5:6), and others.
Sometimes the death of Christ is thought of as a sacrifice (e.g. the blood of the covenant). But a close examination of all these passages indicates that the term is used in the same way as in the OT. That is to say, the sacrifices are still understood to be efficacious by virtue of the death of the victim. ‘The blood of Christ’ accordingly is to be understood of the atoning death of the Saviour.
Bibliography. TDNT 1, pp. 172-177; S. C. Gayford, Sacrifice and Priesthood2, L. Morris, The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross2, 1965; F. J. Taylor, in TWBR; H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant, 1887; A. M. Stibbs, The Meaning of the Word ‘Blood’ in Scripture, 1947. 2
LAMB — (1.) Heb. kebes, a male lamb from the first to the third year. Offered daily at the morning and the evening sacrifice (Ex. 29:38–42), on the Sabbath day (Num. 28:9), at the feast of the New Moon (28:11), of Trumpets (29:2), of Tabernacles (13–40), of Pentecost (Lev. 23:18–20), and of the Passover (Ex. 12:5), and on many other occasions (1 Chr. 29:21; 2 Chr. 29:21; Lev. 9:3; 14:10–25).
(2.) Heb. taleh, a young sucking lamb (1 Sam. 7:9; Isa. 65:25). In the symbolical language of Scripture the lamb is the type of meekness and innocence (Isa. 11:6; 65:25; Luke 10:3; John 21:15).
The lamb was a symbol of Christ (Gen. 4:4; Ex. 12:3; 29:38; Isa. 16:1; 53:7; John 1:36; Rev. 13:8).
Christ is called the Lamb of God (John 1:29, 36), as the great sacrifice of which the former sacrifices were only types (Num. 6:12; Lev. 14:12–17; Isa. 53:7; 1 Cor. 5:7). 1
LAMB OF GOD. This expression occurs twice only in the NT (Jn. 1:29, 36). The word amnos is also found in Acts 8:32 and 1 Pet. 1:19, arnos occurs in Lk. 10:3, and arnion is found once in Jn. 21:15 and twenty-eight times in Revelation. The words ‘Behold the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world’ (Jn. 1:29) are attributed to John the Baptist when acclaiming Jesus. Many possible interpretations of the word ‘lamb’ have been canvassed.
Some suggest that it refers to the lamb of the sin-offering, and the phrase ‘who takes away the sin of the world’ lends support to this. The fact that propitiatory ideas do not seem to be found elsewhere in the Fourth Gospel is not a sufficient reason for rejecting this.
Others believe there is a reference to the paschal lamb. The Jewish festivals have great significance in John, and Jn. 19:36 may well be alluding to the lamb of the Passover. But this would not explain the whole phrase, as the paschal lamb did not take away sins.
Some maintain that we have here a reference to the suffering servant of Is. 53. The word amnos occurs in the lxx of Is. 53:7. The Baptist quoted from Is. 40 the day before and he may have been meditating on those chapters. The sin-bearing function is clear in Is. 53. The suggestion that amnos is a mistranslation of the Aramaic t\alyaµÕ meaning ‘servant’ is ingenious, but it has not been proved.
Another possible reference is to the horned ram who led the flock. The ‘lamb of God’ would thus be the same as the ‘king of Israel’. This view is acceptable only if it is claimed that ho airoµn teµn hamartian has no propitiatory meaning.
It seems likely that, whatever the Baptist intended, the Evangelist intended his readers to think of the lamb offered in the Temple, the paschal lamb, and the suffering servant. The ‘Lamb of God’ also reminds us of God’s provision of a lamb for Abraham to sacrifice (Gn. 22:8, 13-14).
Bibliography. Arndt; J. Jeremias, TDNT 1, pp. 338-340; R. Tuente, NIDNTT 2, pp. 410-414; standard commentaries on John’s Gospel; C. H. Dodd, The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel, 1953, pp. 230-238; L. Morris, The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross3, 1965, pp. 129ff. 2
WORD, THE — (Gr. Logos), one of the titles of our Lord, found only in the writings of John (John 1:1–14; 1 John 1:1; Rev. 19:13). As such, Christ is the revealer of God. His office is to make God known. “No man hath seen God at any time; the only begotten Son, which is in the bosom of the Father, he hath declared him” (John 1:18). This title designates the divine nature of Christ. As the Word, he “was in the beginning” and “became flesh.” “The Word was with God " and “was God,” and was the Creator of all things (comp. Ps.33:6; 107:20; 119:89; 147:18; Isa. 40:8). 1
WORD. In the OT ‘the word (daµb_aµr) of God’ is used 394 times of a divine communication which comes from God to men in the form of commandment, prophecy, warning or encouragement. The usual formula is ‘the word of Yahweh came (lit. was) to . . .‘ but sometimes the word is ‘seen’ as a vision (Is. 2:1; Je. 2:31; 38:21). Yahweh’s word is an extension of the divine personality, invested with divine authority, and is to be heeded by angels and men (Ps. 103:20; Dt. 12:32); it stands for ever (Is. 40:8), and once uttered it cannot return unfulfilled (Is. 55:11). It is used as a synonym for the law (toÆraÆ) of God in Ps. 119, where alone its reference is to a written rather than a spoken message.
In the NT it translates two terms, *logos and rheµmaa, the former being supremely used of the message of the Christian gospel (Mk. 2:2; Acts 6:2; Gal. 6:6), though the latter also bears the same meaning (Rom. 10:8; Eph. 6:17; Heb. 6:5; etc.). Our Lord spoke of the word of God (in the parable of the sower, Lk. 8:11; see also Mk. 7:13; Lk. 11:28), but in the Synoptic Gospels he always used the plural of his own message (‘my words’, Mt. 24:35 and parallels; Mk. 8:38; Lk. 24:44). In the Fourth Gospel, however, the singular is often found. To the early church the word was a message revealed from God in Christ, which was to be preached, ministered and obeyed. It was the word of life (Phil. 2:16), of truth (Eph. 1:13), of salvation (Acts 13:26), of reconciliation (2 Cor. 5:19), of the cross (1 Cor. 1:18).
Bibliography. H. Haarbeck et al., in NIDNTT 3, pp. 1078-1146; A. Debrunner et al., in TDNT 4, pp. 69-143. 2
TESTIMONY — (1.) Witness or evidence (2 Thess. 1:10).
(2.) The Scriptures, as the revelation of God’s will (2 Kings 11:12; Ps. 19:7; 119:88; Isa. 8:16, 20).
(3.) The altar raised by the Gadites and Reubenites (Josh. 22:10).1
TESTIMONY, TABERNACLE OF — the tabernacle, the great glory of which was that it contained “the testimony”, i.e., the “two tables” (Ex. 38:21). The ark in which these tables were deposited was called the “ark of the testimony” (40:3), and also simply the “testimony” (27:21; 30:6). 1
MARTYR — one who bears witness of the truth, and suffers death in the cause of Christ (Acts 22:20; Rev. 2:13; 17:6). In this sense Stephen was the first martyr. The Greek word so rendered in all other cases is translated “witness.” (1.) In a court of justice (Matt. 18:16; 26:65; Acts 6:13; 7:58; Heb. 10:28; 1 Tim. 5:19). (2.) As of one bearing testimony to the truth of what he has seen or known (Luke 24:48; Acts 1:8, 22; Rom. 1:9; 1 Thess. 2:5, 10; 1 John 1:2).1
DEATH — may be simply defined as the termination of life. It is represented under a variety of aspects in Scripture: (1.) “The dust shall return to the earth as it was” (Eccl. 12:7).
(2.) “Thou takest away their breath, they die” (Ps. 104:29).
(3.) It is the dissolution of “our earthly house of this tabernacle” (2 Cor. 5:1); the “putting off this tabernacle” (2 Pet. 1:13, 14).
(4.) Being “unclothed” (2 Cor. 5:3, 4).
(5.) “Falling on sleep” (Ps. 76:5; Jer. 51:39; Acts 13:36; 2 Pet. 3:9.
(6.) “I go whence I shall not return” (Job 10:21); “Make me to know mine end” (Ps. 39:4); “to depart” (Phil. 1:23).
The grave is represented as “the gates of death” (Job 38:17; Ps. 9:13; 107:18). The gloomy silence of the grave is spoken of under the figure of the “shadow of death” (Jer. 2:6).
Death is the effect of sin (Heb. 2:14), and not a “debt of nature.” It is but once (9:27), universal (Gen. 3:19), necessary (Luke 2:28–30). Jesus has by his own death taken away its sting for all his followers (1 Cor. 15:55–57).
There is a spiritual death in trespasses and sins, i.e., the death of the soul under the power of sin (Rom. 8:6; Eph. 2:1, 3; Col. 2:13).
The “second death” (Rev. 2:11) is the everlasting perdition of the wicked (Rev. 21:8), and “second” in respect to natural or temporal death.
THE DEATH OF CHRIST is the procuring cause incidentally of all the blessings men enjoy on earth. But specially it is the procuring cause of the actual salvation of all his people, together with all the means that lead thereto. It does not make their salvation merely possible, but certain (Matt. 18:11; Rom. 5:10; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 1:4; 3:13; Eph. 1:7; 2:16; Rom. 8:32–35).1
DEATH. From one point of view death is the most natural of things: ‘it is appointed for men to die once’ (Heb. 9:27). It may be accepted without rebellion: ‘Let us also go, that we may die with him’ (Jn. 11:16). From another, it is the most unnatural of things. It is the penalty for sin (Rom. 6:23), and it is to be feared as such. Both points of view are to be found in the Bible, and neither should be overlooked. Death is a biological necessity, but men do not die simply as the animals die.
I. Physical death
Death seems to be necessary for bodies constituted as ours are. Physical decay and ultimate dissolution are inescapable. Yet the Bible speaks of death as the result of sin. God said to Adam, ‘in the day that you eat of it you will die’ (Gn. 2:17). Paul tells us that ‘sin came into the world through one man and death through sin’ (Rom. 5:12), and again that ‘the wages of sin is death’ (Rom. 6:23). Yet when we look more closely into the matter we see that Adam did not die physically on the day that he disobeyed God. And in Rom. 5 and 6 Paul is contrasting the death that came about through Adam’s sin with the life that Christ brings men. Now the possession of eternal life does not cancel out physical death. It is opposed to a spiritual state, not to a physical event. The inference that we draw from all this is that that death which is the result of sin is more than bodily death.
But with this we must take the other thought that the scriptural passages which connect sin and death do not qualify death. We would not understand from them that something other than the usual meaning attached to the word. Perhaps we should understand that mortality was the result of Adam’s sin, and that the penalty includes both physical and spiritual aspects. But we do not know enough about Adam’s pre-fallen condition to say anything about it. If his body was like ours, then it was mortal. If it was not, we have no means of knowing what it was like, and whether it was mortal or not.
It seems better to understand death as something that involves the whole man. Man does not die as a body. He dies as a man, in the totality of his being. He dies as a spiritual and physical being. And the Bible does not put a sharp line of demarcation between the two aspects. Physical death, then, is a fit symbol of, and expression of, and unity with, the deeper death that sin inevitably brings.
II. Spiritual death
That death is a divine penalty. We have already noticed that Rom. 6:23 regards death as ‘the wages’ of sin, i.e. as the due reward for sin. Paul can speak of certain sinners who know ‘God’s decree that those who do such things deserve to die’ (Rom. 1:32). It is the thought of God’s decree that underlies John’s reference to the ‘mortal sin’ (1 Jn. 5:16). This is a very important truth. It enables us to see the full horror of death. And at the same time, paradoxically, it gives us hope. Men are not caught up in a web woven by blind fate, so that, once having sinned, nothing can ever be done about it. God is over the whole process, and if he has decreed that death is the penalty of sin, he has also determined to give life eternal to sinful men.
Sometimes the NT emphasizes the serious consequences of sin by referring to ‘the second death’ (Jude 12; Rev. 2:11, etc.). This is a rabbinic expression which signifies eternal perdition. It is to be understood along with passages wherein our Lord spoke of ‘eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels’ (Mt. 25:41), ‘eternal punishment’ (set in contrast to ‘eternal life’, Mt. 25:46), and the like. The final state of impenitent man is variously described as death, punishment, being lost, etc. Obviously it would be unwise to equate it with any one of them. But equally obviously on the Bible view it is a state to be regarded with horror.
Sometimes the objection is made that this is inconsistent with the view of God as a loving God. There is a profound mystery here, but at least it can be said that the objection, as commonly stated, overlooks the fact that death is a state as well as an event. ‘To set the mind on the flesh is death,‘ writes Paul (Rom. 8:6). He does not say that the mind of the flesh will cause death. He says that it is death. He adds that it ‘is hostile to God; it does not submit to God’s law, indeed it cannot’. The same truth is put in a different way when John says, ‘He who does not love abides in death’ (1 Jn. 3:14). When we have grasped the truth that death is a state, we see the impossibility of the impenitent being saved. Salvation for such is a contradiction in terms. For salvation a man must pass from death into life (Jn. 5:24).
III. Victory over death
An interesting feature of NT teaching on death is that the emphasis is on life. If we look up a concordance we find that in most places nekros (‘dead’) is used of resurrection from the dead or the like. The Scripture faces death, as it faces all reality. But its interest is in life, and death is treated more or less incidentally as that from which men are saved. Christ took upon him our nature, ‘that through death he might destroy him who has the power of death, that is, the devil’ (Heb. 2:14). The devil’s power is always regarded as subject to God’s overruling (Jb. 2:6; Lk. 12:5, etc.). He is no absolute disposer of death. Nevertheless death, the negation of life, is his proper sphere. And Christ came to put an end to death. It was through death, as the Hebrews passage indicates, that he defeated Satan. It was through death that he put away our sin. ‘The death he died he died to sin, once for all’ (Rom. 6:10). Apart from Christ, death is the supreme enemy, the symbol of our alienation from God, the ultimate horror. But Christ has used death to deliver men from death. He died that men may live. It is significant that the NT can speak of believers as ‘sleeping’ rather that as ‘dying’ (e.g. 1 Thes. 4:14). Jesus bore the full horror of death. Therefore for those who are ‘in Christ’ death has been transformed so that it is no more than sleep.
The extent of the victory over death that Christ won is indicated by his resurrection. ‘Christ being raised from the dead will never die again; death no longer has dominion over him’ (Rom. 6:9). The resurrection is the great triumphal event, and the whole of the NT note of victory originates here. Christ is ‘the Author of life’ (Acts 3:15), ‘Lord both of the dead and of the living’ (Rom. 14:9), ‘the Word of life’ (1 Jn. 1:1). His victory over death is complete. And his victory is made available to his people. Death’s destruction is certain (1 Cor. 15:26, 54ff.; Rev. 21:4). The second death has no power over the believer (Rev. 2:11; 20:6). In keeping with this the NT understands eternal life not as the immortality of the soul, but in terms of the resurrection of the body. Nothing could more graphically illustrate the finality and the completeness of death’s defeat.
Not only is there a glorious future, there is a glorious present. The believer has already passed out of death and into life (Jn. 5:24; 1 Jn. 3:14). He is ‘free from the law of sin and death’ (Rom. 8:2). Death cannot separate him from God (Rom. 8:38f.). Jesus said, ‘If any one keeps my word, he will never see death’ (Jn. 8:51). Such words do not deny the reality of biological death. Rather they point us to the truth that the death of Jesus means that the believer has passed altogether out of the state which is death. He is brought into a new state, which is aptly characterized as life. He will in due course pass through the gateway we call death. But the sting has been drawn. The death of Jesus means victory over death for his followers.
Bibliography. C. S. Lewis, Miracles, 1947, pp. 150ff.; J. Pelikan, The Shape of Death, 1962; K. Rahner, On the Theology of Death, 1961; Leon Morris, The Wages of Sin, 1955; M. Paternoster, Thou Art There Also: God, Death, and Hell, 1967. 2
1. Easton, M. G., M. A. D. D., Easton’s Bible Dictionary, (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc.) 1996.
2. The New Bible Dictionary, (Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.) 1962.
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