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FULL BACKGROUND
PRAISE. In the OT the words for praise mainly used are haµlal, the root meaning of which is connected with making a noise; yaµdaÆ, which was originally associated with the bodily actions and gestures which accompany praising; and zaµmar, which is associated with the playing or singing of music. In the NT eucharistein (lit. ‘to give thanks’) is the favourite word, implying on the part of the person who praises the attitude of one more intimate with the person praised than in the more formal eulogein, ‘to bless’.
The whole of the Bible is punctuated with outbursts of praise. They rise spontaneously from the ‘basic mood’ of joy which marks the life of the people of God. God takes pleasure and delight in his works of creation (Gn. 1; Ps. 104:31; Pr. 8:30-31), and all creation, including the angels, expresses its joy in praise (Jb. 38:4-7; Rev. 4:6-11). Man also was created to rejoice in God’s works (Ps. 90:14-16) and fulfils this purpose by accepting God’s gifts (Ec. 8:15; 9:7; 11:9; Phil. 4:4, 8; cf. also W. Eichrodt, Man in the Old Testament, 1951, p. 35).
The coming of the kingdom of God into the midst of this world is marked by the restoration of joy and praise to the people of God and the whole creation (Is. 9:2; Ps. 96:11-13; Rev. 5:9-14; Lk. 2:13-14), a foretaste of which is already given in the ritual and worship of the Temple where praise arises from sheer joy in the redeeming presence of God (Dt. 27:7; Nu. 10:10; Lv. 23:40). The praise of God is rendered on earth for the works both of creation and redemption (Pss. 24; 136), this being an echo on earth of the praise of heaven (Rev. 4:11; 5:9-10). Praise, therefore, is a mark of the people of God (1 Pet. 2:9; Eph. 1:3-14; Phil. 1:11). It is the mark of the heathen that they refuse to render it (Rom. 1:21; Rev. 16:9). The act of praising implies the closest fellowship with the One who is being praised. ‘Therefore praise not merely expresses but completes the enjoyment; it is its appointed consummation . . .. In commanding us to glorify Him, God is inviting us to enjoy Him’ (C. S. Lewis, Reflections on the Psalms, 1958, p. 95).
Yet praise to God is frequently commanded from men as a duty and is obviously not meant to depend on mood or feeling or circumstances (cf. Jb. 1:21). To ‘rejoice before the Lord’ is part of the ordered ritual of the common life of his people (Dt. 12:7; 16:11-12), in which men encourage and exhort one another to praise. Though there are psalms which express the praise of the individual, it was always felt that praise could best be rendered within the congregation (Pss. 22:25; 34:3; 35:18), where praise not only gives honour and pleasure to God (Ps. 50:23) but also bears testimony to God’s people (Ps. 51:12-15).
Elaborate arrangements were made for the conduct of praise in the Temple by the Levites. The Psalms were used in the liturgy and in sacred processions with ‘glad shouts and songs’ (Ps. 42:4). The singing was probably antiphonal, involving two choirs, or soloist and choir. Dancing, from earliest times a means of expressing praise (Ex. 15:20; 2 Sa. 6:14), was also used in the Temple to this end (Pss. 149:3; 150:4). Ps. 150 gives a list of musical instruments used in the praise. (*Music and Musical Instruments.)
The early Christians continued to express their gladness by attending worship in the Temple (Lk. 24:53; Acts 3:1). But their experience of new life in Christ was bound to express itself in new forms of praise (Mk. 2:22). Joy was the dominant mood of the Christian life, and though the formal worship and praise which it inspired is not explicitly described or prescribed, this was because it was so much taken for granted. As those who experienced and witnessed the healing and cleansing power of Jesus broke out spontaneously into praise (Lk. 18:43; Mk. 2:12), so also in the apostolic church there are frequent examples of such spontaneous outbursts, as men began to see and understand the power and goodness of God in Christ (Acts 2:46; 3:8; 11:18; 16:25; Eph. 1:1-14).
The Psalms were undoubtedly used to express the praise of the early church (Col. 3:16; cf. Mt. 26:30). There were also new Christian hymns (cf. Rev. 5:8-14), referred to in Col. 3:16; 1 Cor. 14:26. We have examples of such inspiration to new forms of praise in the *Magnificat, *Benedictus and *Nunc Dimittis (Lk. 1:46-55, 68-79; 2:29-32). Elsewhere in the text of the NT there are examples of the formal praise of the early church. It seems likely from its literary form and content that Phil. 2:6-11 was composed and used as a hymn of praise to Christ. Probably there are echoes of, or quotations from, early hymns in such passages as Eph. 5:14 and 1 Tim. 3:16. The doxologies in the book of Revelation (cf. Rev. 1:4-7; 5:9-14; 15:3-4) must have been used in public worship to express the praise of the congregation (cf. A. B. Macdonald, Christian Worship in the Primitive Church, 1934).
The close connection between praise and sacrifice should be noted. In the sacrificial ritual of the OT a place was found for the sacrifice of thanksgiving as well as of expiation (cf. Lv. 7:11-21). Gratitude was to be the fundamental motive behind the bringing of the first-fruits to the altar (Dt. 26:1-11). In the sincere offering of praise itself there is a sacrifice which pleases God (Heb. 13:15; Ho. 14:2; Ps. 119:108). In the priestly self-offering of Jesus this aspect of thanksgiving finds its place (Mk. 14:22-23, 26; Jn. 17:1-2; Mt. 11:25-26). The life of the Christian should, correspondingly, be a self-offering of gratitude (Rom. 12:1) in fulfilment of his royal priesthood (Rev. 1:5-6; 1 Pet. 2:9), and the fact that such a sacrificial self-offering can be made in a real way in the midst of suffering, links suffering and praise together in the Christian life (Phil. 2:17). Thanksgiving sanctifies not only suffering but all aspects of the life of the Christian (1 Tim. 4:4-5; 1 Cor. 10:30-31; 1 Thes. 5:16-18). Whatever else be the burden of prayer, it must include praise (Phil. 4:6).
Bibliography. H. Ringgren, The Faith of the Psalmists, 1963; C. Westermann, The Praise of God in the Psalms, 1965; A. A. Anderson, The Book of Psalms, 1972, 1, pp. 31-36; H.-G. Link, NIDNTT 1, pp. 206-215; H. Schultz, H.-H. Esser, NIDNTT 3, pp. 816-820. r.s.w. 1
Worship — homage rendered to God which it is sinful (idolatry) to render to any created being (Ex. 34:14; Isa. 2:8). Such worship was refused by Peter (Acts 10:25,26) and by an angel (Rev. 22:8,9).
Worshipper — (Gr. neocoros = temple-sweeper (Acts 19:35) of the great goddess Diana). This name neocoros appears on most of the extant Ephesian coins 2
WORSHIP. The vocabulary of worship in the Bible is very extensive, but the essential concept in Scripture is ‘service’. Heb. Ôab_oÆd_aÆ and Gk. latreia both originally signified the labour of slaves or hired servants. And in order to offer this ‘worship’ to God his servants must prostrate themselves—Heb. hisûtah\awaÆ or Gk. proskyneoµ—and thus manifest reverential fear and adoring awe and wonder.
In the OT there are instances of individual worship (Gn. 24:26f.; Ex. 33:9-34:8). But the emphasis is upon worship in the congregation (Ps. 42:4; 1 Ch. 29:20). In tabernacle and Temple worship ritual was prominent. Apart from the daily morning and evening sacrifices, the celebration of Passover and the observance of the Day of Atonement would be highlights in the Jewish religious calendar. The ritual acts of shedding of blood, presenting incense, pronouncing the priestly blessing, etc., would tend to emphasize the ceremonial to the detriment of the spiritual aspects of worship, and even tend to introduce a sense of tension or conflict between the two attitudes (Pss. 40:6; 50:7-15; Mi. 6:6-8). But many in Israel would be able to take the public praise (e.g. Pss. 93; 95-100) and prayers (e.g. Pss. 60; 79; 80), and use them to express their love and gratitude to God (Dt. 11:13) in a real act of inward spiritual worship.
This highly-developed public worship offered in the tabernacle and Temple is a far cry from earlier times when the Patriarchs believed that the Lord could be worshipped wherever he had chosen to reveal himself. But that public worship in the Temple was a spiritual reality is clear from the fact that when the sanctuary was destroyed, and the exiles found themselves in Babylon, worship remained a necessity, and to meet this need the synagogue service, consisting of (1) the ShemaÔ, (2) prayers, (3) Scripture readings and (4) exposition, was ‘created’. But later in the second Temple the daily services, the sabbath, the annual festivals and fasts, and the praises of the hymn-book (book of Psalms) of this second Temple ensured that worship remained a vital factor in Jewish national life.
In the NT Temple and synagogue worship are again found. Christ participated in both, but he always inculcated the worship that is the love of the heart towards a heavenly Father. In his teaching the approach to God through ritual and priestly mediation is not merely unimportant, it is now unnecessary. At last ‘worship’ is true Ôab_oÆd_aÆ or latreia, a service offered to God not only in terms of temple worship but of service to one’s fellows (Lk. 10:25ff.; Mt. 5:23f.; Jn. 4:20-24; Jas. 1:27). At the beginning, however, the church did not abandon Temple worship; and probably Christians continued to attend the synagogue services too. And when the break between Judaism and the church finally came Christian worship may have been modelled on the synagogue service.
The great contributory factor in the break away from the Jewish sabbath, Temple, ritual, etc., was the bitter antagonism of the Jews against the church. But so far as the NT is concerned our notions of Christian worship are very vague.
Clearly the main day of worship was the Lord’s Day (Acts 20:7), although we do hear of daily services at the beginning (Acts 2:46). There is no mention in the NT of services commemorating the Lord’s resurrection and the Spirit’s coming at Pentecost. Worship would be conducted in believers’ homes. In such circumstances official ministrants would be unnecessary. Simplicity would be the keynote of these house-church worship services, consisting for the most part of *praise (Eph. 5:19; Col. 3:16), *prayer, reading from the Scriptures and exposition. In the church at Corinth we hear of ‘speaking in tongues’ (1 Cor. 14). The love-feast, followed by the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor. 11:23-28), were also common features of Christian worship. But the emphasis throughout would be upon the Spirit, and the inner love and devotion of the heart.
Bibliography. J. V. Bartlett in ERE: R. Martin-Achard in J.-J. von Allmen (ed.), Vocabulary of the Bible, 1958, pp. 471-474; R. Abba, Principles of Christian Worship, 1957; R. P. Martin, Worship in the Early Church2, 1974. j.g.s.s.t. 1
Prayer — is converse with God; the intercourse of the soul with God, not in contemplation or meditation, but in direct address to him. Prayer may be oral or mental, occasional or constant, ejaculatory or formal. It is a “beseeching the Lord” (Ex. 32:11); “pouring out the soul before the Lord” (1 Sam. 1:15); “praying and crying to heaven” (2 Chr. 32:20); “seeking unto God and making supplication” (Job 8:5); “drawing near to God” (Ps. 73:28); “bowing the knees” (Eph. 3:14).
Prayer presupposes a belief in the personality of God, his ability and willingness to hold intercourse with us, his personal control of all things and of all his creatures and all their actions.
Acceptable prayer must be sincere (Heb. 10:22), offered with reverence and godly fear, with a humble sense of our own insignificance as creatures and of our own unworthiness as sinners, with earnest importunity, and with unhesitating submission to the divine will. Prayer must also be offered in the faith that God is, and is the hearer and answerer of prayer, and that he will fulfil his word, “Ask, and ye shall receive” (Matt. 7:7, 8; 21:22; Mark 11:24; John 14:13, 14), and in the name of Christ (16:23, 24; 15:16; Eph. 2:18; 5:20; Col. 3:17; 1 Pet. 2:5).
Prayer is of different kinds, secret (Matt. 6:6); social, as family prayers, and in social worship; and public, in the service of the sanctuary.
Intercessory prayer is enjoined (Num. 6:23; Job 42:8; Isa. 62:6; Ps. 122:6; 1 Tim. 2:1; James 5:14), and there are many instances on record of answers having been given to such prayers, e.g., of Abraham (Gen. 17:18, 20; 18:23–32; 20:7, 17, 18), of Moses for Pharaoh (Ex. 8:12, 13, 30, 31; Ex. 9:33), for the Israelites (Ex. 17:11, 13; 32:11–14, 31–34; Num. 21:7, 8; Deut. 9:18, 19, 25), for Miriam (Num. 12:13), for Aaron (Deut. 9:20), of Samuel (1 Sam. 7:5–12), of Solomon (1 Kings 8; 2 Chr. 6), Elijah (1 Kings 17:20–23), Elisha (2 Kings 4:33–36), Isaiah (2 Kings 19), Jeremiah (42:2–10), Peter (Acts 9:40), the church (12:5–12), Paul (28:8).
No rules are anywhere in Scripture laid down for the manner of prayer or the attitude to be assumed by the suppliant. There is mention made of kneeling in prayer (1 Kings 8:54; 2 Chr. 6:13; Ps. 95:6; Isa. 45:23; Luke 22:41; Acts 7:60; 9:40; Eph. 3:14, etc.); of bowing and falling prostrate (Gen. 24:26, 52; Ex. 4:31; 12:27; Matt. 26:39; Mark 14:35, etc.); of spreading out the hands (1 Kings 8:22, 38, 54; Ps. 28:2; 63:4; 88:9; 1 Tim. 2:8, etc.); and of standing (1 Sam. 1:26; 1 Kings 8:14, 55; 2 Chr. 20:9; Mark 11:25; Luke 18:11, 13).
If we except the “Lord’s Prayer” (Matt. 6:9–13), which is, however, rather a model or pattern of prayer than a set prayer to be offered up, we have no special form of prayer for general use given us in Scripture.
Prayer is frequently enjoined in Scripture (Ex. 22:23, 27; 1 Kings 3:5; 2 Chr. 7:14; Ps. 37:4; Isa. 55:6; Joel 2:32; Ezek. 36:37, etc.), and we have very many testimonies that it has been answered (Ps. 3:4; 4:1; 6:8; 18:6; 28:6; 30:2; 34:4; 118:5; James 5:16–18, etc.).
“Abraham’s servant prayed to God, and God directed him to the person who should be wife to his master’s son and heir (Gen. 24:10–20).
“Jacob prayed to God, and God inclined the heart of his irritated brother, so that they met in peace and friendship (Gen. 32:24–30; 33:1–4).
“Samson prayed to God, and God showed him a well where he quenched his burning thirst, and so lived to judge Israel (Judg. 15:18–20).
“David prayed, and God defeated the counsel of Ahithophel (2 Sam. 15:31; 16:20–23; 17:14–23).
“Daniel prayed, and God enabled him both to tell Nebuchadnezzar his dream and to give the interpretation of it (Dan. 2:16–23).
“Nehemiah prayed, and God inclined the heart of the king of Persia to grant him leave of absence to visit and rebuild Jerusalem (Neh. 1:11; 2:1–6).
“Esther and Mordecai prayed, and God defeated the purpose of Haman, and saved the Jews from destruction (Esther 4:15–17; 6:7, 8).
“The believers in Jerusalem prayed, and God opened the prison doors and set Peter at liberty, when Herod had resolved upon his death (Acts 12:1–12).
“Paul prayed that the thorn in the flesh might be removed, and his prayer brought a large increase of spiritual strength, while the thorn perhaps remained (2 Cor. 12:7–10).
“Prayer is like the dove that Noah sent forth, which blessed him not only when it returned with an olive-leaf in its mouth, but when it never returned at all.”, Robinson’s Job. 2
PRAYER.
I. Introduction
In the Bible prayer is worship that includes all the attitudes of the human spirit in its approach to God. The Christian worships God when he adores, confesses, praises and supplicates him in prayer. This highest activity of which the human spirit is capable may also be thought of as communion with God, so long as due emphasis is laid upon divine initiative. A man prays because God has already touched his spirit. Prayer in the Bible is not a ‘natural response’ (see Jn. 4:24). ‘That which is born of the flesh is flesh.‘ Consequently, the Lord does not ‘hear’ every prayer (Is. 1:15; 29:13). The biblical doctrine of prayer emphasizes the character of God, the necessity of a man’s being in saving or covenant relation with him, and his entering fully into all the privileges and obligations of that relation with God.
II. In the Old Testament
Köhler (Old Testament Theology, 1957, p. 251, n. 153) finds ‘about eighty-five original prayers in the OT. In addition there are about sixty whole psalms and fourteen parts of psalms which may be called prayers.‘
a. The patriarchal period
In the patriarchal period prayer is calling upon the name of the Lord (Gn. 4:26; 12:8; 21:33); i.e. the sacred name is used in invocation or appeal. There is, consequently, an unmistakable directness and familiarity in prayer (Gn. 15:2ff.; 18:23ff.; 24:12-14, 26f.). Prayer is also closely connected with sacrifice (Gn. 13:4; 26:25; 28:20-22), although this association appears in later periods too. This offering of prayer in a context of sacrifice suggests a union of man’s will with God’s will, an abandonment and submission of the self to God. This is especially so in Jacob’s conjoining prayer with a vow to the Lord. The vow, itself a prayer, promises service and faithfulness if the blessing sought is granted (Gn. 28:20ff.).
b. The pre-exilic period
1. In this period one of the main emphases in prayer is intercession; although this was also a factor in patriarchal times (Gn. 18:22ff.). Intercession was especially prominent in the prayers of Moses (Ex. 32:11-13, 31f.; 33:12-16; 34:9; Nu. 11:11-15; 14:13-19; 21:7; Dt. 9:18-21; 10:10). Dt. 30 is also largely a prayer of intercession, as are also the prayers of Aaron (Nu. 6:22-27), Samuel (1 Sa. 7:5-13; 12:19, 23), Solomon (1 Ki. 8:22-53), and Hezekiah (2 Ki. 19:14-19). The inference seems to be that intercession was confined to outstanding personalities who, by virtue of their position assigned to them by God as prophets, priests and kings, had peculiar power in prayer as mediators between God and men. But the Lord always remained free to execute his will; hence we hear of unsuccessful intercession (Gn. 18:17ff.; Ex. 32:30-35). In Am. 7:1-6 ‘the Lord repented’ concerning a certain course of action in answer to the prophet’s intercession, and in the next verses (7:7-8:2) Israel is to be led away captive after all. Jeremiah is even forbidden to intercede with God (Je. 7:16; 11:14; 14:11). On the other hand, success attended the intercession of Lot (Gn. 19:17-23), Abraham (Gn. 20:17), Moses (Ex. 9:27-33; Nu. 12:9ff.), and Job (Jb. 42:8, 10). It is the strongly personal relation with God in which those mediators stood that underlies these intercessory prayers.
2. It is surprising that among all the legal enactments of the Pentateuch there is nothing about prayer apart from Dt. 26:1-15. Even here it is formulae for worship rather than prayer that are being emphasized. In vv. 5-11 there is thanksgiving, and in vv. 13-14 there is a profession of past obedience, but only in v. 15 is there supplication. However, we are probably right in assuming that sacrifice would often be offered with prayer (Ps. 55:14), and where it was not it might be reproved (Ps. 50:7-15). On the other hand, the almost total absence of prayer in those parts of the Pentateuch where sacrifice is regulated suggests that sacrifice without prayer was fairly common.
3. Prayer must have been indispensable in the ministry of the prophets. The very reception of the revelatory Word from God involved the prophet in a prayerful relation with Yahweh. Indeed, it might well have been that prayer was essential to the prophet’s receiving the Word (Is. 6:5ff.; 37:1-4; Je. 11:20-23; 12:1-6; 42:1ff.). The prophetic vision came to Daniel while he was at prayer (Dn. 9:20ff.). On occasion the Lord kept the prophet waiting for a considerable time in prayer (Hab. 2:1-3). We know from Jeremiah’s writings that while prayer was the essential condition of, and reality in, the prophet’s experience and ministry, it was often a tempestuous exercise of the spirit (18:19-23; 20:7-18), as well as a sweet fellowship with God (1:4ff.; 4:10; 10:23-25; 12:1-4; 14:7-9, 19-22; 15:15-18; 16:19; 17:12ff.).
4. In the Psalms there is a blending of pattern and spontaneity in prayer. Alongside the more formal ‘sanctuary’ prayers (e.g. 24:7-10; 100; 150) there are personal prayers for pardon (51), communion (63), protection (57), healing (6), vindication (109) and prayers that are full of praise (103). Sacrifice and prayer also blend in the psalms (54:6; 66:13ff.).
c. The exilic period
During the Exile the important factor in religion for the Jews was the emergence of the synagogue. The Jerusalem Temple was in ruins, and altar rites and sacrifices could not be performed in unclean Babylon. A Jew was now no longer one who had been born into the community, and was residing in it, but rather one who chose to be a Jew. The centre of the religious community was the synagogue, and among the accepted religious obligations such as circumcision, fasting and sabbath observance, prayer was important. This was inevitable because each little community in exile now depended upon the synagogue service where the Word was read and expounded, and prayers were offered. And after the return to Jerusalem, just as the Temple was not allowed to displace the synagogue, nor the priest the scribe, nor sacrifice the living Word, so ritual did not displace prayer. Both in Temple and synagogue, in priestly ritual and scribal exposition, the devout worshipper now sought the face of Yahweh, his personal presence (Pss. 100:2; 63:1ff.), and received his blessing in terms of the light of his countenance shining upon him (Ps. 80:3, 7, 19).
d. The post-exilic period
After the Exile there was undoubtedly a framework of devotion, but within it freedom was secured for the individual. This is exemplified in Ezra and Nehemiah, who, while insisting upon cult and law, and upon ritual and sacrifice and, therefore, upon the social aspects of worship, yet emphasized also the spiritual factor in devotion (Ezr. 7:27; 8:22f.; Ne. 2:4; 4:4, 9). Their prayers are also instructive (Ezr. 9:6-15; Ne. 1:5-11; 9:5-38; cf. also Dn. 9:4-19). We may also note here that concerning posture in prayer there were no fixed rules (Ps. 28:2; 1 Sa. 1:26; 1 Ki. 8:54; Ezr. 9:5; 1 Ki. 18:42; La. 3:41; Dn. 9:3 and v. 20 where we should read ‘towards’ instead of ‘for’). So also in the matter of hours for prayer: prayer was effective at any time, as well as at the stated hours (Ps. 55:17; Dn. 6:10). In the post-exilic period, then, we find a blending of orderliness of Temple ritual, the simplicity of the synagogue meeting and the spontaneity of personal devotion.
Prayer being what it is, it would be manifestly impossible to systematize it completely. Within the OT there are certainly patterns for prayer but no binding regulations governing either its contents or its ritual. Mechanical prayer, prayer hemmed in by coercive prescriptions, did not come until towards the close of the intertestamental period, as the Gospels make clear. Then, alas, both through Temple sacrifice in Jerusalem, and in the diaspora through the praise, prayer and exposition of the synagogue service, and through circumcision, sabbath observance, tithes, fasting and supererogatory deeds, worshippers in both Temple and synagogue sought to merit acceptance with God.
III. In the New Testament
There are certain clearly-defined areas where the NT teaching on prayer is set forth, but the fountain-head from which all its instruction in prayer flows is Christ’s own doctrine and practice.
a. The Gospels
1. As to Jesus’ doctrine of prayer, this is set out principally in certain of his parables. In the parable of the friend who borrowed three loaves at midnight (Lk. 11:5-8) the Lord inculcates importunity in prayer; and the ground on which the confidence in importunate prayer is built is the Father’s generosity (Mt. 7:7-11). The parable of the unjust judge (Lk. 18:1-8) calls for tenacity in prayer, which includes persistence as well as continuity. God’s delays in answering prayer are due not to indifference but to love that desires to develop and deepen faith which is finally vindicated. In the parable of the tax collector and the Pharisee (Lk. 18:10-14) Christ insists on humility and penitence in prayer, and warns against a sense of self-superiority.
Self-humiliation in prayer means acceptance with God, self-exaltation in prayer hides God’s face. Christ calls for charity in prayer in the parable of the unjust servant (Mt. 18:21-35). It is prayer offered by a forgiving spirit that God answers. Simplicity in prayer is taught in Mt. 6:5f.; 23:14; Mk. 12:38-40; Lk. 20:47. Prayer must be purged of all pretence. It should spring from simplicity of heart and motive, and express itself in simplicity of speech and petition. The Lord also urged intensity in prayer (cf. Mk. 13:33; 14:38; Mt. 26:41). Here watchfulness and faith combine in sleepless vigilance. Again, in Mt. 18:19f. unity in prayer is emphasized. If a group of Christians who have the mind of Christ pray in the Holy Spirit their prayers will be effectual. But prayer must also be expectant (Mk. 11:24). Prayer that is an experiment achieves little; prayer which is the sphere where faith operates in surrender to God’s will achieves much (Mk. 9:23).
2. On objectives in prayer Jesus had singularly little to say. Doubtless he was content to let the Holy Spirit prompt his disciples in prayer. What aims he referred to in prayer are to be found in Mk. 9:28f.; Mt. 5:44; 6:11, 13; 9:36ff.; Lk. 11:13.
3. As to method in prayer, the Lord had two important things to teach. First, prayer is now to be offered to him, as it was offered to him when he was on earth (e.g. Mt. 8:2; 9:18). As he insisted on faith then (Mk. 9:23), and tested sincerity (Mt. 9:27-31), and uncovered ignorance (Mt. 20:20-22) and sinful presumption (Mt. 14:27-31), in those who petitioned him, so he does today in the experience of those who offer prayer to him. Secondly, prayer is now also to be offered in the name of Christ (Jn. 14:13; 15:16; 16:23f.), through whom we have access to the Father. To pray in the name of Christ is to pray as Christ himself prayed, and to pray to the Father as the Son has made him known to us: and for Jesus the true focus in prayer was the Father’s will. Here is the basic characteristic of Christian prayer: a new access to the Father which Christ secures for the Christian, and prayer in harmony with the Father’s will because offered in Christ’s name.
4. As to the Lord’s practice of prayer, it is well known that he prayed in secret (Lk. 5:15f.; 6:12); in times of spiritual conflict (Jn. 12:20-28; Lk. 22:39-46); and on the cross (Mt. 27:46; Lk. 23:46). In his prayers he offered thanksgiving (Lk. 10:21; Jn. 6:11; 11:41; Mt. 26:27), sought guidance (Lk. 6:12ff.), interceded (Jn. 17:6-19, 20-26; Lk. 22:31-34; Mk. 10:16; Lk. 23:34) and communed with the Father (Lk. 9:28ff.). The burden of his highpriest prayer in Jn. 17 is the unity of the church.
5. Since the *Lord’s Prayer is treated more fully elsewhere, it will suffice to point out that after the invocation (Mt. 6:9b) there follow six petitions (9c-13b), of which the first three have reference to God’s name, kingdom and will, and the last three to man’s need of bread, forgiveness and victory: the Prayer then closes with a doxology (13c) which contains a threefold declaration concerning God’s kingdom, power and glory. It is ‘like this’ that Christians are bidden to pray.
b. The Acts of the Apostles
The Acts is an excellent link between the Gospels and the Epistles, because in Acts the apostolic church puts into effect our Lord’s teaching on prayer. The church was born in the atmosphere of prayer (1:4). In answer to prayer the Spirit was poured out upon her (1:4; 2:4). Prayer continued to be the church’s native air (2:42; 6:4, 6). There remained in the church’s thinking a close connection between prayer and the Spirit’s presence and power (4:31). In times of crisis the church had recourse to prayer (4:23ff.; 12:5, 12). Throughout the Acts the church leaders emerge as men of prayer (9:40; 10:9; 16:25; 28:8) who urge the Christians to pray with them (20:28, 36; 21:5).
c. The Pauline Epistles
It is significant that immediately after Christ revealed himself to Paul on the Damascus road it is said of Paul, ‘Behold, he is praying’ (Acts 9:11). Probably for the first time Paul discovered what prayer really was, so profound was the change in his heart which conversion had effected. From that moment he was a man of prayer. In prayer the Lord spoke to him (Acts 22:17f.). Prayer was thanksgiving, intercession, the realization of God’s presence (cf. 1 Thes. 1:2f.; Eph. 1:16ff.). He found that the Holy Spirit assisted him in prayer as he sought to know and do God’s will (Rom. 8:14, 26). In his experience there was a close connection between prayer and the Christian’s intelligence (1 Cor. 14:14-19). Prayer was absolutely essential for the Christian (Rom. 12:12). The Christian’s armour (Eph. 6:13-17) included prayer which Paul describes as ‘all prayer’, to be offered at ‘all seasons’, with ‘all perseverance’, for ‘all saints’ (v. 18). And Paul practised what he preached (Rom. 1:9; Eph. 1:16; 1 Thes. 1:2); hence his insistence upon prayer when writing to his fellow-believers (Phil. 4:6; Col. 4:2).
In his Epistles Paul is constantly breaking out into prayer, and it is instructive to glance at some of his prayers because of their content.
1. In Rom. 1:8-12 he pours out his heart to God in thanksgiving (v. 8), insists upon serving Christ with his spirit (v. 9a), intercedes for his friends in Rome (v. 9b), expresses his desire to impart to them a spiritual gift (vv. 10f.), and declares that he too is depending upon them for spiritual uplift (v. 12).
2. In Eph. 1:15-19 Paul again thanks God for his converts (vv. 15f.), and prays that they may receive the Spirit through whom comes knowledge of God and illumination of heart (vv. 17-18a), in order that they may know the hope of God’s calling, the wealth of God’s inheritance, and the greatness of God’s power which had been demonstrated in Christ’s resurrection (vv. 18b-19).
3. Again, in Eph. 3:14-18 the apostle pleads with the Father (vv. 14f.) for his fellow-Christians that they might be increasingly conscious of God’s power (v. 16), to the end that Christ might indwell them, and that they might be rooted in love (v. 17), that each together, being perfected, might be filled with the fullness of God (vv. 18f.). Both of these ‘Ephesian’ prayers are well summed up in Paul’s threefold desire that Christians should receive knowledge and power issuing in the love of Christ, through which as individuals and a group they should achieve perfection.
4. In Col. 1:9ff. Paul again prays that the believers should know God’s will through spiritual wisdom and understanding (v.9), that practice might agree with profession (v. 10), that they might have power for their practice (v. 11), and be thankful for their immense privilege and position in the Lord Jesus (vv. 12f.).
But perhaps Paul’s greatest contribution to our understanding of Christian prayer is in establishing its connection with the Holy Spirit. Prayer is in fact a gift of the Spirit (1 Cor. 14:14-16). The believer prays ‘in the Spirit’ (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20); hence prayer is a co-operation between God and the believer in that it is presented to the Father, in the name of the Son, through the inspiration of the indwelling Holy Spirit.
Hebrews, James and 1 John
The Epistle to the Hebrews makes a significant contribution to an understanding of Christian prayer. 4:14-16 shows why prayer is possible: it is possible because we have a great High Priest who is both human and divine, because he is now in the heavenly place and because of what he is now doing there. When we pray it is to receive mercy and find grace. The reference to the Lord’s prayer life in 5:7-10 really teaches what prayer is: Christ’s ‘prayers’ and ‘supplications’ were ‘offered up’ to God, and in this spiritual service he ‘learned obedience’ and therefore ‘was heard’. In 10:19-25 the emphasis is upon corporate prayer, and the demands and motives which it involves. The place of prayer is described in 6:19.
The Epistle of James has three significant passages on prayer. Prayer in perplexity is dealt with in 1:5-8; correct motives in prayer are underlined in 4:1-3; and the significance of prayer in time of sickness is made clear in 5:13-18.
In his first Epistle, John points the way to boldness and efficacy in prayer (3:21f.), while in 5:14-16 he establishes the relation between prayer and the will of God, and shows that efficacy in prayer is especially relevant to intercession, but that situations do arise where prayer is powerless.
IV. Conclusion
The heart of the biblical doctrine of prayer is well expressed by B. F. Westcott: ‘True prayer—the prayer that must be answered—is the personal recognition and acceptance of the divine will (Jn. 14:7; cf. Mk. 11:24). It follows that the hearing of prayer which teaches obedience is not so much the granting of a specific petition, which is assumed by the petitioner to be the way to the end desired, but the assurance that what is granted does most effectively lead to the end. Thus we are taught that Christ learned that every detail of His life and passion contributed to the accomplishment of the work which He came to fulfil, and so He was most perfectly ‘heard’. In this sense He was ‘heard for his godly fear’.‘
Bibliography. H. Trevor Hughes, Prophetic Prayer, 1947; F. Heiler, Prayer, 1932; J. G. S. S. Thomson, The Praying Christ, 1959; Ludwig Köhler, Old Testament Theology, 1957; Th. C. Vriezen, An Outline of Old Testament Theology, 1958; H. Schönweiss, C. Brown, G. T. D. Angel, NIDNTT 2, pp. 855-886; H. Greeven et al., TDNT 2, pp. 40-41, 685-687, 775-808; 3, pp. 296-297; 5, pp. 773-799; 6, pp. 758-766; 8, pp. 244-245. j.g.s.s.t. 1
Fast — The sole fast required by the law of Moses was that of the great Day of Atonement (q.v.), Lev. 23:26–32. It is called “the fast” (Acts 27:9).
The only other mention of a periodical fast in the Old Testament is in Zech. 7:1–7; 8:19, from which it appears that during their captivity the Jews observed four annual fasts.
(1.) The fast of the fourth month, kept on the seventeenth day of Tammuz, the anniversary of the capture of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans; to commemorate also the incident recorded Ex. 32:19. (Comp. Jer. 52:6, 7.)
(2.) The fast of the fifth month, kept on the ninth of Ab (comp. Num. 14:27), to commemorate the burning of the city and temple (Jer. 52:12, 13).
(3.) The fast of the seventh month, kept on the third of Tisri (comp. 2 Kings 25), the anniversary of the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. 41:1, 2).
(4.) The fast of the tenth month (comp. Jer. 52:4; Ezek. 33:21; 2 Kings 25:1), to commemorate the beginning of the siege of the holy city by Nebuchadnezzar.
There was in addition to these the fast appointed by Esther (4:16).
Public national fasts on account of sin or to supplicate divine favour were sometimes held. (1.) 1 Sam. 7:6; (2.) 2 Chr. 20:3; (3.) Jer. 36:6–10; (4.) Neh. 9:1.
There were also local fasts. (1.) Judg. 20:26; (2.) 2 Sam. 1:12; (3.) 1 Sam. 31:13; (4.) 1 Kings 21:9–12; (5.) Ezra 8:21–23: (6.) Jonah 3:5–9.
There are many instances of private occasional fasting (1 Sam. 1:7; 20:34; 2 Sam. 3:35; 12:16; 1 Kings 21:27; Ezra 10:6; Neh. 1:4; Dan. 10:2,3). Moses fasted forty days (Ex. 24:18; 34:28), and so also did Elijah (1 Kings 19:8). Our Lord fasted forty days in the wilderness (Matt. 4:2).
In the lapse of time the practice of fasting was lamentably abused (Isa. 58:4; Jer. 14:12; Zech. 7:5). Our Lord rebuked the Pharisees for their hypocritical pretences in fasting (Matt. 6:16). He himself appointed no fast. The early Christians, however, observed the ordinary fasts according to the law of their fathers (Acts 13:3; 14:23; 2 Cor. 6:5). 2
FASTING. Fasting in the Bible generally means going without all food and drink for a period (e.g. Est. 4:16), and not merely refraining from certain foods.
I. In the Old Testament
The Heb. words are s\uÆm (verb) and s\oÆm (noun). The phrase ÔinnaÆ nap_sûoÆ (to afflict the soul) also refers to fasting. First, there were certain annual fasts. Thus the Hebrews fasted on the Day of Atonement (Lv. 16:29, 31; 23:27-32; Nu. 29:7). After the Exile, four other annual fasts were observed (Zc. 8:19), all of them, according to the Talmud, marking disasters in Jewish history. Est. 9:31 can be interpreted as implying the establishment of yet another regular fast.
In addition to these there were occasional fasts. These were sometimes individual (e.g. 2 Sa. 12:22) and sometimes corporate (e.g. Jdg. 20:26; Joel 1:14). Fasting gave expression to grief (1 Sa. 31:13; 2 Sa. 1:12; 3:35; Ne. 1:4; Est. 4:3; Ps. 35:13-14) and penitence (1 Sa. 7:6; 1 Ki. 21:27; Ne. 9:1-2; Dn. 9:3-4; Jon. 3:5-8). It was a way by which men might humble themselves (Ezr. 8:21; Ps. 69:10). Sometimes it may have been thought of as a self-inflicted punishment (cf. the phrase ‘to afflict the soul’). Fasting was often directed towards securing the guidance and help of God (Ex. 34:28; Dt. 9:9; 2 Sa. 12:16-23; 2 Ch. 20:3-4; Ezr. 8:21-23). Fasting could be vicarious (Ezr. 10:6; Est. 4:15-17). Some came to think that fasting would automatically gain man a hearing from God (Is. 58:3-4). Against this the prophets declared that without right conduct fasting was in vain (Is. 58:5-12; Je. 14:11-12; Zc. 7).
II. In the New Testament
The usual Gk. words are neµsteuoµ (verb), and neµsteia and neµstis (nouns). In Acts 27:21, 33 the words asitia and asitos (‘without food’) are also used.
As far as general Jewish practice is concerned, the Day of Atonement is the only annual fast referred to in the NT (Acts 27:9). Some strict Pharisees fasted every Monday and Thursday (Lk. 18:12). Other devout Jews, like Anna, might fast often (Lk. 2:37).
The only occasion when Jesus is recorded as fasting is at the time of his temptations in the wilderness. Then, however, he was not necessarily fasting from choice. The first temptation implies that there was no food available in the place he had selected for his weeks of preparation for his ministry (Mt. 4:1-4). Cf. the 40 days’ fasts of Moses (Ex. 34:28) and Elijah (1 Ki. 19:8).
Jesus assumed that his hearers would fast, but taught them when they did so to face Godward, not manward (Mt. 6:16-18). When asked why his disciples did not fast as did those of John the Baptist and of the Pharisees, Jesus did not repudiate fasting, but declared it to be inappropriate for his disciples ‘as long as the bridegroom is with them’ (Mt. 9:14-17; Mk. 2:18-22; Lk. 5:33-39). Later they would fast like others.
In Acts leaders of the church fast when choosing missionaries (13:2-3) and elders (14:23). Paul twice refers to his fasting (2 Cor. 6:5; 11:27). In the former passage voluntary fasting, by way of self-discipline, appears to be meant (neµsteia); the latter passage mentions both involuntary ‘hunger’ (limos) and voluntary going ‘without food’ (neµsteia).
The weight of textual evidence is against the inclusion of references to fasting in Mt. 17:21; Mk. 9:29; Acts 10:30; 1 Cor. 7:5, though the presence of these references in many mss in itself indicates that there was a growing belief in the value of fasting in the early church. h.a.g.b. 1
Tithe — a tenth of the produce of the earth consecrated and set apart for special purposes. The dedication of a tenth to God was recognized as a duty before the time of Moses. Abraham paid tithes to Melchizedek (Gen. 14:20; Heb. 7:6); and Jacob vowed unto the Lord and said, “Of all that thou shalt give me I will surely give the tenth unto thee.”
The first Mosaic law on this subject is recorded in Lev. 27:30–32. Subsequent legislation regulated the destination of the tithes (Num. 18:21–24, 26–28; Deut. 12:5, 6, 11, 17; 14:22, 23). The paying of the tithes was an important part of the Jewish religious worship. In the days of Hezekiah one of the first results of the reformation of religion was the eagerness with which the people brought in their tithes (2 Chr. 31:5, 6). The neglect of this duty was sternly rebuked by the prophets (Amos 4:4; Mal. 3:8–10). It cannot be affirmed that the Old Testament law of tithes is binding on the Christian Church, nevertheless the principle of this law remains, and is incorporated in the gospel (1 Cor. 9:13, 14); and if, as is the case, the motive that ought to prompt to liberality in the cause of religion and of the service of God be greater now than in Old Testament times, then Christians outght to go beyond the ancient Hebrew in consecrating both themselves and their substance to God.
Every Jew was required by the Levitical law to pay three tithes of his property (1) one tithe for the Levites; (2) one for the use of the temple and the great feasts; and (3) one for the poor of the land. 2
TITHES. The custom of tithing did not originate with the Mosaic law (Gn. 14:17-20), nor was it peculiar to the Hebrews. It was practised among other ancient peoples. There are three main questions to consider.
1. What were the Hebrews required to tithe? The Torah legislated that ‘the seed of the land’ (crops), ‘the fruit of the trees’ and ‘herds and flocks’ (Lv. 27:30-32) were to be tithed. The manner of tithing livestock was as follows: the owner counted the animals as they passed out to pasture, and every tenth one was given to God. In this way there was no possibility of selecting inferior animals for the tithing of the flocks and herds (Lv. 27:32f.). If a Hebrew preferred to dedicate the tenth of his cereal and fruit yields in the form of their monetary value he was free to do so, but a fifth of that sum had to be added to it. He was not allowed to redeem the tenth of his flocks and herds in this way (Lv. 27:31, 33).
2. To whom were the tithes paid? They were to be given to the Levites (Nu. 18:21ff.). But in Heb. 7:5 it is said to be the sons of Levi ‘who receive the priestly office’ who are to be the recipients of the tithes. This departure from the Law may have been due to the Levites’ unwillingness to fulfil their duties in Jerusalem after the return under Ezra (Ezr. 8:15ff.). The Levites, because of the nature of their status and functions in the community, had no means of income, livelihood or inheritance to ensure their support; therefore, and in return ‘for their service which they serve, the service in the tent of meeting’, they were to receive ‘the tithe of the people of Israel’ (Nu. 18:21, 24). This passage in Nu. 18 mentions only the tithing of cereal and fruit crops (v. 27). The Levites, however, were not allowed to keep the whole of the tenth. They were directed to present an offering which was to be taken out of the tenth, which represented ‘a tithe of the tithe’ (Nu. 18:26). This ‘tithe of the tithe’ was to be ‘from all the best of them’ (v. 29) and was to be given to the priests (v. 28; Ne. 10:39).
3. Where were the Hebrews to offer their tithes? They were to bring them to ‘the place which the Lord your God will choose out of all your tribes, to put his name there’ (Dt. 12:5f., 17f.); i.e. Jerusalem. And the offering of the tithes was to take the form of a ritual meal, in which the Levite was to share (Dt. 12:7, 12). If Jerusalem was a long way off from a man’s village the transporting of the tithe of his crops might create a problem, but he could always take his tithe in the form of money (Dt. 14:22-27). Every third year the tithe was to be offered in each man’s own locality (Dt. 14:28f.), although on these occasions he was still obligated to go up to Jerusalem to worship after the offering of his tithes in his home community (Dt. 26:12ff.).
To these comparatively simple laws in the Pentateuch governing tithing there were added a host of minutiae which turned a beautiful religious principle into a grievous burden. These complex additions are recorded in the Mishnaic and Talmudic literature. This unfortunate tendency in Israel undoubtedly contributed to the conviction that acceptance with God could be merited through such ritual observances as tithing (Lk. 11:42), without submitting to the moral law of justice, mercy and faith (Mt. 23:23f.).
The tithes paid by Abraham, the ancestor of Israel and, therefore, of the Aaronic priesthood, to Melchizedek (Gn. 14:20), and his receiving the blessing of this priest-king (Gn. 14:19), signify in Heb. 7:1ff. that Melchizedek’s priesthood was infinitely superior to the Aaronic or levitical priesthood. Why Abraham paid tithes to Melchizedek is not explained in Gn. 14:18-20.
The NT reference to the tithing of ‘mint and dill and cummin’ (Mt. 23:23; Lk. 11:42) illustrates a Talmudic extension of the Mosaic law, ensuring that ‘everything that is eaten . . . and that grows out of the earth’ must be tithed. j.g.s.s.t 1
Gift — (1.) An gratuity (Prov. 19:6) to secure favour (18:16; 21:14), a thank-offering (Num. 18:11), or a dowry (Gen. 34:12).
(2.) An oblation or proppitatory gift (2Sa 8:2,6; 1Ch 18:2,6; 2Ch 26:8; Ps. 45:12; 72:10).
(3.) A bribe to a judge to obtain a favourable verdict (Ex. 23:8; Deut. 16:19).
(4.) Simply a thing given (Matt. 7:11; Luke 11:13; Eph. 4:8); sacrifical (Matt. 5:23, 24; 8:4); eleemosynary (Luke 21:1); a gratuity (John 4:10; Acts 8:20). In Acts 2:38 the generic word dorea is rendered “gift.” It differs from the charisma (1 Cor. 12:4) as denoting not miraculous powers but the working of a new spirit in men, and that spirit from God.
The giving of presents entered largely into the affairs of common life in the East. The nature of the presents was as various as were the occasions: food (1 Sam. 9:7; 16:20), sheep and cattle (Gen. 32:13–15), gold (2 Sam. 18:11), jewels (Gen. 24:53), furniture, and vessels for eating and drinking (2 Sam. 17:28); delicacies, as spices, honey, etc. (1 Kings 10:25; 2 Kings 5:22). The mode of presentation was with as much parade as possible: the presents were conveyed by the hands of servants (Judg. 3:18), or still better, on the backs of beasts of burden (2 Kings 8:9). The refusal of a present was regarded as a high indignity; and this constituted the aggravated insult noticed in Matt. 22:11, the marriage robe having been offered and refused. 2
GIFT. In the OT a dozen words are used of gifts of one kind or other. The sacrifices and other offerings were gifts to God (Ex. 28:38; Nu. 18:11, etc.). The Levites were also, in a way, a gift to the Lord (Nu. 18:6). Occasionally there is the thought of God’s gifts to men, as health and food and wealth and enjoyment (Ec. 3:13; 5:19). Men gave gifts on festive occasions (Ps. 45:12; Est. 9:22), or in association with a dowry (Gn. 34:12). Gifts might be tokens of royal bounty (Dn. 2:6). But there was little goodwill in the ‘gifts’ (RSV, ‘tribute’) the Moabites brought David (2 Sa. 8:2). Gifts might be the expression of shrewd policy, as when ‘a man’s gift makes room for him’ (Pr. 18:16). Indeed, a gift might be offered with altogether improper motives, so that the word comes to mean much the same as ‘bribe’. The Israelites were commanded, ‘thou shalt take no gift: for the gift blindeth the wise’ (Ex. 23:8, av).
In the NT there is a marked change of emphasis. Some of the 9 Gk. words for ‘gift’ refer to men’s gifts to God, as anatheµma (Lk. 21:5), and especially doµron (Mt. 5:23f.; 23:18f., etc.). Some refer also to men’s gifts to one another, e.g. doµron (Rev. 11:10), doma (Mt. 7:11; Phil. 4:17). But the characteristic thing is the use of several words to denote entirely or primarily the gifts that God gives to men. doµrea (the word expresses freeness, bounty) is found 11 times, always of a divine gift. Sometimes this is salvation (Rom. 5:15, 17), or it may be undefined (‘his inexpressible gift’, 2 Cor. 9:15), or it is the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:38). James reminds us that ‘Every good endowment (dosis) and every perfect gift (doµreµma) is from above’ (Jas. 1:17). A most important word is charisma. This may be used of God’s good gift of eternal life (Rom. 6:23), but its characteristic use is for the *’spiritual gifts’, i.e. the gifts which the Holy Spirit imparts to certain people. Everyone has such a gift (1 Pet. 4:10), but specific gifts are reserved for individuals (1 Cor. 12:30), and individuals endowed with these gifts are themselves ‘gifts’ from the ascended Christ to the church (Eph. 4:7ff.). The important passages are Rom. 12:6ff.; 1 Cor. 12:4-11, 28-30; 14; Eph. 4:11ff. Salvation is God’s good gift to men, and all the rest arises from this basic truth. l.m.
1
1. The New Bible Dictionary, (Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.) 1962.
2. Easton, M. G., M. A. D. D., Easton’s Bible Dictionary, (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc.) 1996.
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